Embryonic stem cells and Klf4

There's now some additional information on one of the transcription factors written about here, which are able to reprogram adult skin cells into embryonic stem cells. To review, one of the teams responsible for this research used Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 for the reprogramming, while another team used Oct3/4, Sox2, Nanog and Lin28.

Of the transcription factors in the first list, all but Klf4 have been well-studied. So it is of some interest to know more about Klf4, and why it seems to be somewhat less essential than the others.

Some of the interesting details are reported on here: Molecular Alliance That Sustains Embryonic Stem Cell State Identified.

Klf4 is normally active in real embryonic stem cells. To investigate the role Klf4 might be playing in the reprogramming of skin cells, the researchers investigated embryonic stem cells that had been artificially depleted of Klf4. To their surprise, the team found that the cells maintained their pluripotency.

The question then was how to explain this. What was found is that two closely-related transcription factors – Klf2 and Klf5 – took over the role of Klf4:

"Most important, the data showed that the other Klfs were bound to the target sites when one of them was depleted." said Dr. Ng. "These Krüppel-like factors form a very powerful alliance that work together on regulating common targets. The impact of losing one of them is masked by the other two sibling molecules."

This family of transcription factors, called Kruppel-like factors, gets its name from a homology to the Drosophila Krüppel protein. Members of this family have been studied for their roles in cell proliferation, differentiation and survival, especially in the context of cancer.

Interestingly enough, according to the research press release,

Klfs were found to regulate the Nanog gene and other key genes that must be active for ES cells to be pluripotent, or capable of differentiating into virtually any type of cells. Nanog gene is one of the key pluripotency genes in ES cells.

"We suggest that Nanog and other genes are key effectors for the biological functions of the Klfs in ES cells," Dr. Ng said.

"Together, our study provides new insight into how the core Klf circuitry integrates into the Nanog transcriptional network to specify gene expression unique to ES cells.

Nanog, of course, is one of the transcription factors in the set of transcription factors which was found to be an alternative, for reprogramming adult cells, to the set that contained Klf4.

The Nanog protein, too, is known to be critically important in pluripotent stem cells. It is a homeobox transcription factor that appears to play an essential role in self-renewal of undifferentiated embryonic stem cells. It also appears to be connected with cancer, because (according to Wikipedia) "It has been shown that the tumour suppressor p53 binds to the promoter of NANOG and suppresses its expression after DNA damage in mouse embryonic stem cells. p53 can thus induce differentiation of embronic stem cells into other cell types which undergo efficient p53-dependent cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis."

The connection of Klf proteins with cancer is not only through Nanog. According to Wikipedia, "Klf4 also interacts with the p300/CBP transcription co-activators." The closely-related p300 and CBP "interact with numerous transcription factors and act to increase the expression of their target genes." And they too are involved with cancer:

Mutations in the p300 gene have been identified in several other types of cancer. These mutations are somatic, which means they are acquired during a person's lifetime and are present only in certain cells. Somatic mutations in the p300 gene have been found in a small number of solid tumors, including cancers of the colon and rectum, stomach, breast and pancreas. Studies suggest that p300 mutations may also play a role in the development of some prostate cancers, and could help predict whether these tumors will increase in size or spread to other parts of the body. In cancer cells, p300 mutations prevent the gene from producing any functional protein. Without p300, cells cannot effectively restrain growth and division, which can allow cancerous tumors to form.

What IQ-1 does, Kahn explains, is to block one arm of a cell-signaling pathway called the Wnt pathway, while enhancing the signal coming from the other arm of the Wnt pathway. The Wnt pathway is known to have dichotomous effects on stem cells i.e. both proliferative and differentiative. More specifically, IQ-1 blocks the coactivator p300 from interacting with the protein ß-catenin; this prevents the stem cells from being 'told' to differentiate into a more specific cell type.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells II

In this article from the April 4 Science, which I mentioned here, several research reports dealing with induced pluripotent stem cells were discussed. One of these I covered in the post I just noted.

Another just as important report apparently has not yet been formally published, but is (at least temporarily) available online since February 14 at Science Express:

Generation of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Adult Mouse Liver and Stomach Cells

                                                         Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have been generated from mouse and human fibroblasts by the retroviral transduction of four transcription factors. However, the cell origins and molecular mechanisms of iPS cell induction remain elusive. This report describes the generation of iPS cells from adult mouse hepatocytes and gastric epithelial cells. These iPS cell clones appear to be equivalent to ES cells in gene expression and are competent to generate germ-line chimeras.

It's not surprising that this is significant research, as it's from the same team of Shinya Yamanaka that was the first to report successful creation of induced pluripotent stem cells. (See here.)

So what is this research about? Well, the investigators used the same four transcription factors (Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc) as employed in the majority of previous iPS studies. However, instead of applying the transcription factors to fibroblast cells, they were applied to two types of epithelial cells instead.

Fibroblasts are part of a body's connective tissue. They are involved in structure and support for other tissues and contain large amounts of the protein collagen. They do not divide for the most part, and so it is especially significant that it was possible to reprogram them into a stemcell-like state at all.

Epithelial cells, on the other hand, line the inner and outer surfaces of various body structures, including skin and the gastrointestinal tract. Such cells divide more frequently. They have to, in order to replace other cells of the same kind that are exposed to hostile environments. Epithelial cells also tend to be more adherent to other cells, because they more highly express an adherence protein called E-cadherin.

In some sense, then, epithelial cells are a little more like stem cells to begin with, so one might expect better results when attempting to reprogram them.

This expectation seems to have been met. One of the key differences the researchers found is that reprogrammed epithelial cells had less tendency to form cancerous tumors in mice into which they were included. Certainly not an inconsiderable advantage. This characteristic may be related to the finding that c-Myc seems to play a less essential role in reprogramming epithelial cells.

Specifically, reprogramming of epithelial cells was almost as efficient when c-Myc was not used as when it was included with the other three transcription factors. Yet it was not possible to accomplish reprogramming if any of the other three factors was omitted. In contrast, the efficiency of reprogramming fibroblasts dropped by 90% when c-Myc was omitted.

Another intriguing difference was that reprogrammed epithelial cells contained higher levels of expression of β-catenin than reprogrammed fibroblasts did. (You may recall – see here – that β-catenin is an important part of the Wnt signaling pathway.) In this regard, the reprogrammed epithelial cells are more like true embryonic stem cells than reprogrammed fibroblasts are. It's probably not a coincidence that expression of Nanog is stimulated by β-catenin, (see here), since Nanog is considered important for maintaining stem cell pluripotency.

A further advantage of the use of epithelial cells is that many fewer retroviral "integration sites" were needed to include the transcription factor genes into the cell genome, in comparison with fibroblasts. This is another way the risk of cancer is reduced.